This website was created by Josh S. Jackson. It's an adaptation of a Landscape Architecture graduate thesis written at UC Berkeley, available here.
To understand how networks and network activity interact with physical landscape, I approached my research from intersecting approaches, triangulating concepts in the medium of landscape as I synthesized concepts from disparate fields into a coherent conceptual framework. The three angles of approach can be roughly classified into three categories: technology, social production, and urban studies.
One text relevant to all three approaches was Manuel Castells’ The Rise of the Network Society (1996). The Rise of the Network Society is remarkable both for the breadth of its analysis and its often prescient assessments of how the Internet would evolve to shape society. In terms of technology, Castells’ straightforward summary of the Internet’s history was excellent, and his citations of McLuhan led me to Understanding Media (1964) and McLuhan’s other visionary work in media studies. To digest McLuhan’s sometimes sprawling style of argument, I drew some guidance from Understanding Comics (1993) by illustrator and author Scott McCloud. McLuhan and McCloud together helped illuminate concepts of participation and closure in media.
My research on the technology of digital networks was also strongly supported by the work of William J. Mitchell, the architect-visionary from MIT’s media lab. His texts ME+++ (2003), E-Topia (1999), and City of Bits (1995) were essential guides to the ways that new technologies are changing communication and perception in the city. One of his former colleagues from the media lab, interaction designer Malcolm McCullough, added extensive insight into ubiquitous computing and a model for my typological analysis in his book Digital Ground: Architecture, Pervasive Computing, and Environmental Knowing (2004). A talk McCullough gave on his forthcoming book Ambient Commons (forthcoming) also added several important concepts to my analysis framework. McCullough’s work was an invaluable introduction to ubiquitous computing and the implications of having computer chips embedded in the landscape and carried on our bodies. In a similar vein, the Dutch journal Open’s issue “Hybrid Space: How Wireless Media Mobilize Public Space” (March, 2007) offered an excellent collection of essays considering the role of computers and networks in architecture and cities.
Two law professors at Harvard, Yochai Benkler and Lawrence Lessig, approach new technologies in a different way by focusing on the implications of the Internet based communication and the emerging modes of social production processes. Lessig is a founding board member of Creative Commons and Benkler’s research on “commons-based peer-production” is described in The Wealth of Networks (2006). Each scholar makes important conclusions about the evolution of creativity and production in the digital era that can be applied to environmental design. Although he comes from a tech background, Clay Shirky’s work draws similar conclusions to those of Benkler and Lessig. His book Here Comes Everybody (2008) provides many concrete examples of computer and network-mediated social activity.
While Howard Rheingold’s books Virtual Communities (1994) and Smart Mobs (2002) both incorporate extensive discussions of computer technology, Rheingold’s texts were most helpful as an insider’s view of elements of society that are completely enmeshed with digital networks. His examinations of extreme cases—it terms of both virtual communities and “cyborg” societies—paint a fascinating, almost science fiction version of where industrialized society is heading in terms of computer use.
In terms of urban studies, I returned to some important thinkers from the 1950s and 1960s that have shaped my thinking about cities for years. The observational approach of Jane Jacobs remains as relevant today as it was when The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) was published. Her methodology of watching cities—as well as the insights she gleaned from her observations—works astonishingly well in the study of networks’ impacts on urban spaces. Likewise, Erving Goffman’s Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), with its dramaturgical metaphors, is very helpful in describing how social interactions enabled by computer-mediated-communication remain grounded in pre-existing social norms. An anthropologist from the same era, Edward T. Hall, provides insight into the importance of space in social interaction (Proxemics) in The Hidden Dimension (1966).
Several scholars writing in the 1970s and 1980s deal with urbanism and the sociology of space in ways that are relevant to the study of digital networks space. Architect and environmental psychologist Amos Rapoport forges a helpful compromise between environmental determinism and placeless society in Human Aspects of Built Urban Form (1977) that is very useful in assessing the relationship between online society and the urban realm. The geographer and social scientist Doreen Massey also has relevant contributions on the “stretching-out” of time-space with the advent of digital communications and media in Space, Place and Gender (1994).
Three authors that look at the evolution of American public space, Ray Oldenburg in The Great Good Place (1989), Robert Putnam in Bowling Alone (2000), and Joel Kotkin in The New Geography (2000) offer observations and terminology that can assist the work of the designer dealing with public space in both the physical and digital realms.
Another set of contributions come from the work of the Dutch structuralist Herman Hertzberger’s book Articulations (2002). Likewise, architect Lars Lerup describes design scaffolds for infill in Building the Unfinished (1977). Both designers offer concepts for design involving architect-created frameworks that are completed by their inhabitants. This model is extremely helpful for working with network-landscape interactions and the open source principles at work in online design.
It would be a large oversight to exclude the internet itself from a discussion of sources for this thesis. Through extensive and ongoing online research involving blogs, social networks, twitter, and other tools, I have been able to follow trends in digital network technology being applied to the physical landscape and catalog examples of specific forms, processes, and events.[1] In particular, two design blogs have proven particularly helpful in finding project examples and developing terminology: Pruned by Alex Trevi and City of Sound by Dan Hill.
Finally, for my methods of synthesizing all this theory with observations and experiments, I borrow from landscape urbanism, which, according to James Corner, “suggests a reconsideration of traditional conceptual, representational, and operative techniques.”[2] The interdisciplinary approach of landscape urbanism is well-suited to break down the network-landscape relationship, which reaches across several disciplines.
[1] I have used the social bookmarking service “del.icio.us” to catalog relevant websites—the bookmarks can be accessed at http://delicious.com/Nautical2k/networklandscape
[2] James Corner, “Terra Fluxus” in The Landscape Urbanism Reader. Ed. Charles Waldheim, (New York, Princeton Architectural Press, 2006), 32.
To understand how networks and network activity interact with physical landscape, I approached my research from intersecting approaches, triangulating concepts in the medium of landscape as I synthesized concepts from disparate fields into a coherent conceptual framework. The three angles of approach can be roughly classified into three categories: technology, social production, and urban studies.
One text relevant to all three approaches was Manuel Castells’ The Rise of the Network Society (1996). The Rise of the Network Society is remarkable both for the breadth of its analysis and its often prescient assessments of how the Internet would evolve to shape society. In terms of technology, Castells’ straightforward summary of the Internet’s history was excellent, and his citations of McLuhan led me to Understanding Media (1964) and McLuhan’s other visionary work in media studies. To digest McLuhan’s sometimes sprawling style of argument, I drew some guidance from Understanding Comics (1993) by illustrator and author Scott McCloud. McLuhan and McCloud together helped illuminate concepts of participation and closure in media.
My research on the technology of digital networks was also strongly supported by the work of William J. Mitchell, the architect-visionary from MIT’s media lab. His texts ME+++ (2003), E-Topia (1999), and City of Bits (1995) were essential guides to the ways that new technologies are changing communication and perception in the city. One of his former colleagues from the media lab, interaction designer Malcolm McCullough, added extensive insight into ubiquitous computing and a model for my typological analysis in his book Digital Ground: Architecture, Pervasive Computing, and Environmental Knowing (2004). A talk McCullough gave on his forthcoming book Ambient Commons (forthcoming) also added several important concepts to my analysis framework. McCullough’s work was an invaluable introduction to ubiquitous computing and the implications of having computer chips embedded in the landscape and carried on our bodies. In a similar vein, the Dutch journal Open’s issue “Hybrid Space: How Wireless Media Mobilize Public Space” (March, 2007) offered an excellent collection of essays considering the role of computers and networks in architecture and cities.
Two law professors at Harvard, Yochai Benkler and Lawrence Lessig, approach new technologies in a different way by focusing on the implications of the Internet based communication and the emerging modes of social production processes. Lessig is a founding board member of Creative Commons and Benkler’s research on “commons-based peer-production” is described in The Wealth of Networks (2006). Each scholar makes important conclusions about the evolution of creativity and production in the digital era that can be applied to environmental design. Although he comes from a tech background, Clay Shirky’s work draws similar conclusions to those of Benkler and Lessig. His book Here Comes Everybody (2008) provides many concrete examples of computer and network-mediated social activity.
While Howard Rheingold’s books Virtual Communities (1994) and Smart Mobs (2002) both incorporate extensive discussions of computer technology, Rheingold’s texts were most helpful as an insider’s view of elements of society that are completely enmeshed with digital networks. His examinations of extreme cases—it terms of both virtual communities and “cyborg” societies—paint a fascinating, almost science fiction version of where industrialized society is heading in terms of computer use.
In terms of urban studies, I returned to some important thinkers from the 1950s and 1960s that have shaped my thinking about cities for years. The observational approach of Jane Jacobs remains as relevant today as it was when The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) was published. Her methodology of watching cities—as well as the insights she gleaned from her observations—works astonishingly well in the study of networks’ impacts on urban spaces. Likewise, Erving Goffman’s Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), with its dramaturgical metaphors, is very helpful in describing how social interactions enabled by computer-mediated-communication remain grounded in pre-existing social norms. An anthropologist from the same era, Edward T. Hall, provides insight into the importance of space in social interaction (Proxemics) in The Hidden Dimension (1966).
Several scholars writing in the 1970s and 1980s deal with urbanism and the sociology of space in ways that are relevant to the study of digital networks space. Architect and environmental psychologist Amos Rapoport forges a helpful compromise between environmental determinism and placeless society in Human Aspects of Built Urban Form (1977) that is very useful in assessing the relationship between online society and the urban realm. The geographer and social scientist Doreen Massey also has relevant contributions on the “stretching-out” of time-space with the advent of digital communications and media in Space, Place and Gender (1994).
Three authors that look at the evolution of American public space, Ray Oldenburg in The Great Good Place (1989), Robert Putnam in Bowling Alone (2000), and Joel Kotkin in The New Geography (2000) offer observations and terminology that can assist the work of the designer dealing with public space in both the physical and digital realms.
Another set of contributions come from the work of the Dutch structuralist Herman Hertzberger’s book Articulations (2002). Likewise, architect Lars Lerup describes design scaffolds for infill in Building the Unfinished (1977). Both designers offer concepts for design involving architect-created frameworks that are completed by their inhabitants. This model is extremely helpful for working with network-landscape interactions and the open source principles at work in online design.
It would be a large oversight to exclude the internet itself from a discussion of sources for this thesis. Through extensive and ongoing online research involving blogs, social networks, twitter, and other tools, I have been able to follow trends in digital network technology being applied to the physical landscape and catalog examples of specific forms, processes, and events.[1] In particular, two design blogs have proven particularly helpful in finding project examples and developing terminology: Pruned by Alex Trevi and City of Sound by Dan Hill.
Finally, for my methods of synthesizing all this theory with observations and experiments, I borrow from landscape urbanism, which, according to James Corner, “suggests a reconsideration of traditional conceptual, representational, and operative techniques.”[2] The interdisciplinary approach of landscape urbanism is well-suited to break down the network-landscape relationship, which reaches across several disciplines.
[1] I have used the social bookmarking service “del.icio.us” to catalog relevant websites—the bookmarks can be accessed at http://delicious.com/Nautical2k/networklandscape
[2] James Corner, “Terra Fluxus” in The Landscape Urbanism Reader. Ed. Charles Waldheim, (New York, Princeton Architectural Press, 2006), 32.
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Undersea fiber optic cables. Source: Telegeography Submarine Cable Map. Accessed via http://www.telegeography.com/product-info/map_cable/index.php on 4-28-10
Figure 2.1: World population compared to the number of microchips globally. Graphic by Josh S Jackson. Data source: Malcolm McCullough. Digital Ground, 6.
Figure 2.2 Landing site of Hibernia Atlantic transatlantic cable, Halifax, Canada. Source: Andrew Blum. “Netscapes: Tracing the Journey of a Single Bit” Wired Magazine. November 16, 2009. Accessed via http://www.wired.com/magazine/ff_Internetplaces/ on 4-29-2010. Quote accessed via http://sandbox.xerox.com/ubicomp/ on 5-3-2010.
Figure 2.3 Cabspotting. Source: http://cabspotting.org/ Accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.4 The Telectroscope in London. Source: Charlotte Gilhooly accessed via http://www.flickr.com/photos/30813729@N00/2516027318/in/photostream/ on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.5 Left: The Panopticon. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panopticon.jpg Right: Sign on sidewalk in San Francisco’s SOMA district. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 2.6 The Youth Ball after Barack Obama’s inauguration. Source: Kevin Lamarque/Reuters accessed via http://social.venturebeat.com/2009/01/21/googles-inauguration-search-queries-show-a-rapidly-evolving-Internet/ on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.7 Street With A View. Source: “Street With A View - Press Images“ http://www.flickr.com/photos/mattressfactory/sets/72157609005199799/with/3027846058/
Figure 2.8 Left: Crown Fountain in Chicago. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sergemelki/2713868085/ . Right: Fremont Street in Las Vegas. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mikejonesphoto/2511175545/in/photostream/
Figure 2.9 Opera In the Park at AT&T Park in San Francisco. Source: http://www.sanfranciscosentinel.com/?p=38821
Figure 2.10. Hand from Above. Source: http://www.todayandtomorrow.net/2009/10/15/hand-from-above/
Figure 2.11. Left: SpectraTxt. Source: http://www.peterfreeman.co.uk/midboro.htm Right: Urbanscreen. Source: http://www.urbanscreen.com/
Figure 2.12 Left: Heads-Up-Display (HUD) in an F-18 fighter jet. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HUD_view.jpg Right: First-down line on Football TV broadcast. Source: http://www.howstuffworks.com/first-down-line.htm
Figure 3.1 Comic illustrating closure. Source: Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics, 68.
Figure 3.2 Edward T. Hall’s model of Proxemics. Source: Edward T. Hall. The Hidden Diemnsion, 119.
Figure 3.3 The San Francisco Pillow Fight Flash Mob. Source: Scott Beale. “Pillow Fight in San Francisco!“ Laughing Squid (blog). http://laughingsquid.com/pillow-fight-in-san-francisco/. Accessed on 4-26-2010.
Figure 3.4 Red Shirt protestors in Bangkok organized their demonstrations with digital communication networks. Source: Thomas Fuller. ““Thai Protestors Shed Culture of Restraint.” The New York Times. March 31, 2010. Accessed via http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/01/world/asia/01thai.html?ref=world on 4-29-2010.
Figure 3.5 Radio Ballet in Amsterdam. Source: http://www.debalie.nl/artikel.jsp?podiumid=politiek&articleid=62935 accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 3.6 Pre-fabricated scaffolds for housing remote fishing villages. Source: Lars Lerup, Building the Unfinished, 66.
Figure 3.7 Ushahidi map. Source: http://www.ushahidi.com/ accessed on 4-29-2010.’
Figure 3.8 Critical Mass, Vancouver, 2009.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/98399468@N00/3995150694/ accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 4.1 The Network-Landscape Interaction Typology. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.2 An immersive environment created with media façades. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.3 Mobile devices can provide information about a place to augment reality. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.4 Online content can be projected into space with coordinated social action in the process of emergent urbanism. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.5 Ubiquitous networked cameras create a new urban condition that can be used to activate space and connect distant locations. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.6 Networking technologies and participation frameworks enable individuals marking specific locations with information. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.7 Aggregating data from a large number of individuals is a powerful technique for environmental design research. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.1 Systems of sampling and projection interactions can generate feedback loops Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.2 Access. Source: Marie Sester. Accessed via http://www.accessproject.net/archives/pictures/pictures2.html on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.3 The KMA Great Street Games. Source: Screen captures from video by Tom Wexler. Access via http://vimeo.com/channels/9005 and http://www.kma.co.uk/ on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.4 PARK(ing) Day. Source: Rebar. “PARK(ing) Day Assembly Manual: And Street Intervention Toolkit,” 2008. Photo accessed via http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2009/09/16/hudson-county-planning-office-brings-parking-day-to-jersey-city/ on 5-2-2010. Also see http://www.parkingday.org/.
Figure 5.5 Forage Berkeley. Source: Josh S Jackson, Will Q. Smith, Alexandra Harker. Accessed via http://forageberkeley.blogspot.com/ on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.6 Forage Berkeley’s online framework. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.7 The addition of crowdsourced data was stimulated by activity on Craigslist and Facebook. Source: Josh S Jackson
Figure 5.8 Forage Berkeley generates a system of network-landscape interaction with crowdsourcing, geotagging and emergent urbanism. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 6.1 Ian McHarg’s “layer cake” of landscape factors can include network-based layers. Source: I.L. McHarg, Design With Nature. Image scanned from a reproduction in a course syllabus for LA 201 by Joe McBride.
Barney, Darin David. The Network Society. Oxford: Polity, 2004.
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Undersea fiber optic cables. Source: Telegeography Submarine Cable Map. Accessed via http://www.telegeography.com/product-info/map_cable/index.php on 4-28-10
Figure 2.1: World population compared to the number of microchips globally. Graphic by Josh S Jackson. Data source: Malcolm McCullough. Digital Ground, 6.
Figure 2.2 Landing site of Hibernia Atlantic transatlantic cable, Halifax, Canada. Source: Andrew Blum. “Netscapes: Tracing the Journey of a Single Bit” Wired Magazine. November 16, 2009. Accessed via http://www.wired.com/magazine/ff_Internetplaces/ on 4-29-2010. Quote accessed via http://sandbox.xerox.com/ubicomp/ on 5-3-2010.
Figure 2.3 Cabspotting. Source: http://cabspotting.org/ Accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.4 The Telectroscope in London. Source: Charlotte Gilhooly accessed via http://www.flickr.com/photos/30813729@N00/2516027318/in/photostream/ on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.5 Left: The Panopticon. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panopticon.jpg Right: Sign on sidewalk in San Francisco’s SOMA district. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 2.6 The Youth Ball after Barack Obama’s inauguration. Source: Kevin Lamarque/Reuters accessed via http://social.venturebeat.com/2009/01/21/googles-inauguration-search-queries-show-a-rapidly-evolving-Internet/ on 4-29-2010.
Figure 2.7 Street With A View. Source: “Street With A View - Press Images“ http://www.flickr.com/photos/mattressfactory/sets/72157609005199799/with/3027846058/
Figure 2.8 Left: Crown Fountain in Chicago. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sergemelki/2713868085/ . Right: Fremont Street in Las Vegas. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mikejonesphoto/2511175545/in/photostream/
Figure 2.9 Opera In the Park at AT&T Park in San Francisco. Source: http://www.sanfranciscosentinel.com/?p=38821
Figure 2.10. Hand from Above. Source: http://www.todayandtomorrow.net/2009/10/15/hand-from-above/
Figure 2.11. Left: SpectraTxt. Source: http://www.peterfreeman.co.uk/midboro.htm Right: Urbanscreen. Source: http://www.urbanscreen.com/
Figure 2.12 Left: Heads-Up-Display (HUD) in an F-18 fighter jet. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HUD_view.jpg Right: First-down line on Football TV broadcast. Source: http://www.howstuffworks.com/first-down-line.htm
Figure 3.1 Comic illustrating closure. Source: Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics, 68.
Figure 3.2 Edward T. Hall’s model of Proxemics. Source: Edward T. Hall. The Hidden Diemnsion, 119.
Figure 3.3 The San Francisco Pillow Fight Flash Mob. Source: Scott Beale. “Pillow Fight in San Francisco!“ Laughing Squid (blog). http://laughingsquid.com/pillow-fight-in-san-francisco/. Accessed on 4-26-2010.
Figure 3.4 Red Shirt protestors in Bangkok organized their demonstrations with digital communication networks. Source: Thomas Fuller. ““Thai Protestors Shed Culture of Restraint.” The New York Times. March 31, 2010. Accessed via http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/01/world/asia/01thai.html?ref=world on 4-29-2010.
Figure 3.5 Radio Ballet in Amsterdam. Source: http://www.debalie.nl/artikel.jsp?podiumid=politiek&articleid=62935 accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 3.6 Pre-fabricated scaffolds for housing remote fishing villages. Source: Lars Lerup, Building the Unfinished, 66.
Figure 3.7 Ushahidi map. Source: http://www.ushahidi.com/ accessed on 4-29-2010.’
Figure 3.8 Critical Mass, Vancouver, 2009.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/98399468@N00/3995150694/ accessed on 4-29-2010.
Figure 4.1 The Network-Landscape Interaction Typology. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.2 An immersive environment created with media façades. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.3 Mobile devices can provide information about a place to augment reality. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.4 Online content can be projected into space with coordinated social action in the process of emergent urbanism. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.5 Ubiquitous networked cameras create a new urban condition that can be used to activate space and connect distant locations. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.6 Networking technologies and participation frameworks enable individuals marking specific locations with information. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 4.7 Aggregating data from a large number of individuals is a powerful technique for environmental design research. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.1 Systems of sampling and projection interactions can generate feedback loops Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.2 Access. Source: Marie Sester. Accessed via http://www.accessproject.net/archives/pictures/pictures2.html on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.3 The KMA Great Street Games. Source: Screen captures from video by Tom Wexler. Access via http://vimeo.com/channels/9005 and http://www.kma.co.uk/ on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.4 PARK(ing) Day. Source: Rebar. “PARK(ing) Day Assembly Manual: And Street Intervention Toolkit,” 2008. Photo accessed via http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2009/09/16/hudson-county-planning-office-brings-parking-day-to-jersey-city/ on 5-2-2010. Also see http://www.parkingday.org/.
Figure 5.5 Forage Berkeley. Source: Josh S Jackson, Will Q. Smith, Alexandra Harker. Accessed via http://forageberkeley.blogspot.com/ on 5-2-2010.
Figure 5.6 Forage Berkeley’s online framework. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 5.7 The addition of crowdsourced data was stimulated by activity on Craigslist and Facebook. Source: Josh S Jackson
Figure 5.8 Forage Berkeley generates a system of network-landscape interaction with crowdsourcing, geotagging and emergent urbanism. Source: Josh S Jackson.
Figure 6.1 Ian McHarg’s “layer cake” of landscape factors can include network-based layers. Source: I.L. McHarg, Design With Nature. Image scanned from a reproduction in a course syllabus for LA 201 by Joe McBride.
